All posts by Manfred Kohler

International cyber relationships, internet platforms and virtual worlds: project outline and call for support

More and more aspects of life are covered by the internet. This increases the number of relationships that arise between natural and legal persons. These relationships can arise via the internet in general, on platforms like LinkedIn or in virtual worlds like “Second Life”. In the future, the “metaverse” or similar “virtual worlds” may aim to supplant the real world, creating even more complex legal relationships. Continue reading International cyber relationships, internet platforms and virtual worlds: project outline and call for support →

Regulation under the microscope: the small scale building blocks of regulation

Analysing regulation can be done in a variety of ways. One could start at the macro level as was presented in the howtoregulate article “Regulatory architecture”. Alternatively, one could also begin analysing regulating at the micro level as this article will present. Although it would be more logical to analyse regulation step-by-step from the macro to the micro level, more can learned by presenting first the two poles before presenting regulatory techniques at the intermediate levels. The intermediate levels are better understood when one is familiar with the macro and the micro view on regulation. Continue reading Regulation under the microscope: the small scale building blocks of regulation →

The art of setting multi-dimensional limit values in regulation

In many fields of technical, chemical or environmental regulation we use limit values. The purpose of establishing limit values in regulation is to set clear rules that protect safety of people, the environment and policy goals generally. This howtoregulate article analyses situations where there is a trade-off between different or inter-dependent parameters which are subject to limit values. Furthermore, we present a rational approach for deciding the trade-offs between limit values. Continue reading The art of setting multi-dimensional limit values in regulation →

Regulatory architecture

Legislative and regulatory acts (hereafter jointly called “acts”) rarely exist in an isolated way. Therefore, it is important to fit them well into the overall regulatory architecture for the given sector or field. We examine in this howtoregulate article how best to position an act in the overall regulatory architecture. To that end, we need to look more closely at how acts relate to each other. Continue reading Regulatory architecture →

Typology of referencing in regulations

Referencing in regulations is becoming more common in a globalised and interconnected world. Jurisdictions recognise that other bodies, or organisations both within and outside their jurisdiction, have more expertise in a given sector and so it makes sense to reference such bodies / organisations. In fact such referencing is justified based on efficiency, limited resources and consistency. However, some referencing in regulations has not been conceived well and so this howtoregulate article provides a roadmap of considerations that a regulator ought to take into account before making a reference, external to the piece of regulation. Continue reading Typology of referencing in regulations →

How to harmonise decision-making of authorities and conformity assessment bodies?

More than five years after dealing with harmonised decision-making in the Handbook “How to regulate?”, we now re-visit the topic of this article in a more analytical way. We present six key components for a strategy leading to more harmonised decision-making (A). These key components can be integrated into an operational action plan and workflow. Continue reading How to harmonise decision-making of authorities and conformity assessment bodies? →

Empowerments (Part I): typology

To ensure the good application of law, authorities must have empowerments. However, we have not yet found any systematic presentation of types of empowerments. We aim at closing this gap by this article. We will see that the focus on empowerment permits a new, complementary view on what regulation should contain. This complementary view can be used to double-check whether draft regulation is complete. Continue reading Empowerments (Part I): typology →

Liability as regulatory tool

Establishing a legal basis for liability claims or modifying an existing one can deter economic operators or other natural or legal persons from unwished behaviours. To use this instrument, it is necessary to analyse the tort law regime of the respective jurisdiction and to complement or correct it so as to ensure that the unwished behaviour is covered. The following check-list of relevant issues might help regulators in this task. The check-list reflects various tort law traditions. This means, on the other hand, that some of the issues listed below are not relevant in all jurisdictions. Continue reading Liability as regulatory tool →